G. Stanley Hall and the Study of Higher Education

Lester F. Goodchild

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Publisher's Note

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The year 1993 marked the centenary of higher education as a field of study. ¹ In the fall of 1893, Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924), president of Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, offered the first course on college and university problems in the United States and Europe. During the next [End Page 69] three decades, Hall and his colleagues added related course offerings, conducted research, published their findings, and advised doctoral and master's students. Hall's pioneering effort, which lasted until 1926, created the first graduate program specializing in this area of study. Unfortunately, little is known about this programmatic origin of higher education as field of study.

Like other educational leaders at the turn of the century, Hall spent much of his intellectual energies on developing the new American university. The problem of this age was the role of the university in modern life (Rothblatt & Wittrock, 1993; Rudolph, 1962; Veysey, 1965). University presidents were shaping new research missions at Johns Hopkins University in 1876, Catholic University of America in 1889, and the University of Chicago in 1892. Each academic architect followed and adapted contemporary German developments which had originated at the University of Berlin in 1810 (Paulsen, 1895, 1906, 1908). A few penned their experiences. President Daniel Coit Gilman presented the Hopkins perspective with his groundbreaking University Problems in the United States in 1898. Reflecting on his thirty-nine years in office, Harvard President Charles W. Eliot wrote University Administration in 1908.

Similarly, Hall played a distinctive role in this effort by launching all graduate research-oriented Clark University in 1889. He advocated "this new university movement" (1890, p. 32) through numerous articles and speeches. Unlike these better-known presidents, however, he understood how these concerns could comprise a specialized program of studies. Hall created the study of "higher pedagogy" at Clark (1914, p. 250) to educate a new generation of university administrators and education faculty who would ignite a progressive research revolution among American universities. This new field of study became part of Hall's reform agenda for education. Such fields, their programs, and their philosophies epitomized this era as universities created new graduate and professional studies (Geiger, 1986; Haskell, 1977; Machlup, 1982; Metzger, 1987; Oleson & Voss, 1979). Hall thus embarked on a programmatic direction later adopted by six other American universities during the 1920s. Initially, these courses and programs were developed primarily to educate administrators for the growing number of junior colleges (Brint & Karabel, 1989; Goodchild, 1991). While the explicit linkages between these generations of programs have yet to be explored, Hall's genius and enthusiasm for higher education as a field of study nevertheless secured the American programmatic foundation for all future programs. Currently, over 120 institutions of higher learning offer such graduate and professional programs (Fife & Goodchild, 1991; Townsend, 1990).

Combining an intellectual history approach with a focus on biography and institutional history (Carr, 1986, pp. 73-80; Goodchild & Huk, 1990, pp. 257-260; Higham, 1965, pp. 204-211), this paper overviews education [End Page 70] as Hall's avocation, describes Hall's education and academic appointments up to 1887, alludes to the European origins of this study, recounts the founding of Clark University and Hall's presidency, explores the rationale for the American beginnings of the field, reviews the development of Hall's study of higher education in three phases, describes Hall's notable graduates and their careers, and briefly notes its relation to other higher education programs before the second World War. This works thus advances not only our understanding of the field's beginnings (Burnett, 1973; Dressel & Mayhew, 1974; Goodchild, 1991) but also expands our knowledge of intellectual life in the United States at the turn of the century (Oleson & Voss, 1979; Perry, 1984).

Education as Hall's Avocation

G. Stanley Hall's interest in all levels of education, especially college administration and student life, resulted from a series of faculty and administrative appointments, beginning at Antioch College and ending at Clark University. However, its appeal was not the foundation for his intellectual life nor its preoccupation. It remained an avocation (Goodchild, 1992). While Hall first gravitated to the clerical life with its philosophical and divinity studies in search of a professional career, his fascination with experimental and applied psychology claimed his primary scholarly commitment. His academic and professional activities included hundreds of publications, the establishment of three psychology journals (the American Journal of Psychology in 1887, the American Journal of Religious Psychology and Education in 1904, and the Journal of Applied Psychology in 1917), and the founding of the American Psychological Association, all of which launched the American discipline of psychology. Many consider him to be its founder (Ross, 1972; White, 1992).

Yet as his expertise grew in psychology through his exposure to higher learning, Hall perceived an integral relationship between psychology and education: education was an area of applied psychology. Hall gradually embraced this experiential and intellectual association in his professional life. He became the first professor of psychology and pedagogy at Johns Hopkins University in 1884 (Hall, 1923, pp. 225-258; Hall, 1901; Ross, 1972, pp. 132-133) and the first president of Clark University in 1888. As faculty member and then president, Hall investigated education broadly as it related to schools, colleges, and universities. One important dimension of this inquiry centered on the study of higher education. His courses, publications, a research journal, and national speeches explored the meaning of higher pedagogy, described college and university problems, and demanded an international higher education perspective at all times. This achievement had not come easily but was born out of adversity. [End Page 71]

Hall's Education

Hall's early education encouraged his interest in human development from religious, psychological, and social perspectives. After his agrarian Massachusetts upbringing, he attended Williston Seminary in 1862 to prepare for college studies. Then he entered the classical course at Williams College in 1863 under the direction of two significant 19th-century philosophers and educators, Mark Hopkins (1802-1887) and John Bascom (1827-1911). Hall retained a lifetime intellectual interest in their focus on character development, morality, and religion 22 (Hall, 1923, pp. 157, 166-170). Hall completed his baccalaureate degree in 1867.

Drawn to the Protestant ministry, Hall next attended Union Theological Seminary in New York. After his first year of classes, he served a short summer pastorship in Coudersport, Pennsylvania, that left him unsure of his vocation. Upon his return to Union and subsequent discussions with famed American theologian Henry Ward Beecher (1802-1886), Hall set his sights on the academic life. Beecher arranged for some financial assistance from Henry W. Sage which enabled Hall to travel to Germany and study philosophy at the University of Berlin in 1868. The outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war two years later forced his return to Union. He received a second bachelor's degree in divinity from Union in 1871, but his trip overseas had confirmed the new direction in his life.

Leaving ministerial ambitions behind him, Hall then sought an academic appointment. At Antioch College, he taught English literature, particularly Anglo-Saxon and Shakespeare, and German from 1872 to 1876. During this first appointment, Hall developed an interest in higher education in response to Antioch's difficulties in securing a president (Hall, 1875). He gave a public lecture on the "Methods and Problems of Higher Education" ("Retrospective," 1875). Given the chaos in the college and unable to assist, Hall chose to resign. Two years later he wrote a novella about a college in turmoil saved by a strong president (Hall, 1878). This work presaged his own administrative style. While teaching at Antioch, Hall had discovered that Wundt's Physiological Psychology suggested a new direction in expanding his intellectual interests (Schultz & Schultz, 1987, p. 142). In 1876, Hall entered Harvard University and, two years later, completed the first American doctorate in psychology under William James (1842-1910) whose scientific psychology captured finally his intellectual spirit (Ross, 1972, pp. 59, 62-80).

Hall's Early Professional Life

Eager for postdoctoral research opportunities in 1878, Hall left for Germany a second time to pursue psychological studies along physiological lines. He attended the universities of Berlin and Leipzig where he studied [End Page 72] under Hermann von Helmholtz and Wilhelm Wundt respectively. Hall gained considerable expertise in what would become experimental psychology, then not a course of study in the United States. After returning to Boston, Hall was invited by President Charles W. Eliot to give a series of lectures at Harvard on education in 1880.

After giving a similar series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University in March 1882, Hall next accepted a postdoctoral appointment in philosophy--psychology and education were still inchoate aspects of this subject--at Hopkins (Ross, 1972, p. 135). After Hall published several groundbreaking articles and developed an admiration for the historical methods of his friend and neighbor Herbert Baxter Adams (Goodchild & Huk, 1990, pp. 238-242; Hall, 1905a, pp. 12-15; Hall, 1923, pp. 235-236), President Daniel Coit Gilman appointed him professor of psychology and pedagogy in 1884 (Hawkins, 1960). Hall's scientific research, including the establishment of the first American psychology laboratory, and publications demonstrated his preeminence in both fields (Boring, 1950; Ross, 1972; Wilson, 1914). Yet a seemingly insignificant incident occurred which Hall recounted throughout his life. Gilman prohibited him from offering "a course in the history of universities and learned societies." Hall believed that such a course was "an essential part of the work of pedagogy." Limited to teaching only about elementary and secondary education at Hopkins, he later wondered why the president had rejected his "earnest wish." Hall could point only to Gilman's possible lack of confidence in his ability or fear of internal criticism of his administration (Hall, 1916, p. 37; 1923, p. 251). Ironically, after leaving his Hopkins faculty position, Hall's frustrated desire led not only to the course's offering at Clark University but also to much more.

Hall as President and Professor

Five years later, Hall assumed an administrative office which enabled him to become a national leader in American higher education and the founder of higher education as a field of study. In 1887, Jonas Gilman Clark (1815-1900), a wealthy retired Massachusetts businessman, decided to found an institution of higher learning in Worcester to educate young men and foster advanced knowledge along the lines of the Johns Hopkins University (Koelsch, 1987, pp. 1-42). After receiving several recommendations for its new presidency, he approached Hall. The Johns Hopkins professor accepted only after convincing Clark that this institution should initially be a research university, unencumbered by undergraduates until 1892 (Hall, 1923, pp. 261-263; Koelsch, 1987, p. 43; Ross, 1972, pp. 186-194). Subsequently, they agreed that the institution would first offer graduate education in five areas: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology. Clark further authorized Hall to hire the finest professors possible. [End Page 73]

Hall then returned to Europe for the third time to seek the latest opinions on university structure, to select promising faculty members, and to purchase a library. By opening day in 1889, Hall had assembled one of the strongest scientific faculties in the United States. He succeeded in no small part because of his extensive raid on the Johns Hopkins faculty (Koelsch, 1987, p. 24).

The University opened with eighteen members of faculty grade and thirty-four students. Of this group of fifty-two scholars, fifteen had studied or taught at Johns Hopkins University, nineteen had done graduate work at European universities, and twelve scholars not on the faculty already held Ph.D. degrees. As a group, they were uniquely well trained for and dedicated to scientific research. (Ross, 1972, p. 202)

The faculty offered courses leading to the doctorate in all five areas during the first year.

Beginning in the 1890-1891 academic year, Hall, who continued his faculty duties as professor of psychology, also offered educational courses and Monday evening seminars within the graduate Department of Psychology (Burnham, 1899, p. 161). In the previous year, the president had persuaded William H. Burnham (1860-1930), who had been one of his doctoral students at Johns Hopkins University, to come to Clark and conduct educational research as a docent in pedagogy. Beginning in the fall of 1890, Hall supervised Burnham who gave three year-long "lectures" (what would later be called courses) in "Pedagogical Principles," "Topics in the History of Education," and "Present Problems in Higher and Lower Education." While Burnham never taught a complete course which covered higher education, he often discussed it in his general courses. In the next year, Burnham taught "Physical Education" and "School Hygiene"--which focused on children's health needs for proper lighting, ventilation, and plumbing in school buildings. In the 1892-1893 academic year, he offered both his lectures on physical education and a broad special topics course covering history, psychology, and present problems in education. In 1892, Hall promoted him to an instructor (Koelsch, 1987, p. 49). Throughout his long academic career at Clark, lasting until his retirement as a professor of pedagogy in 1926, Burnham focused his teaching on elementary and secondary education with a specialization in school hygiene. (For example, see "Education," Clark University Register, 1892-1893, pp. 60-62.) During this early period, Hall's teaching in education occurred primarily in evening seminars and in supervising Burnham who explored higher education issues at least in part of one class ("Department of Psychology," 1893, pp. 7, 22-24). Success continued during the first three academic years of Clark University's existence. It represented the institution's golden age, embodying the closest approximation [End Page 74] of a German research university model ever attained in this country (Koelsch, 1987, pp. 31-32).

Unfortunately, Hall's triumph was short-lived. While the founder had allowed and funded this initial research orientation, Hall had delayed implementing Clark's broader vision that included an undergraduate college, vocational studies for the sons of industrial Worcester, and educational activities for the community. As the disagreement over the university's mission intensified, Clark sought to limit Hall's presidential authority and power by reducing his budget.

By the end of the 1891-1892 academic year, four events almost forced the closing of the university. First, Clark had pledged $1 million to launch the university, which funded its buildings, endowment, library, faculty salaries, and administrative expenses. He also agreed to spend $30,000 annually for administrative costs and to cover any overruns in the first three years of the university's operation. Thereafter, the founder would have completed his overall pledge to the university, hoping that the endowment income, tuition, and other revenues would finance the institution. Any subsequent monies given would be additional gifts. Clark thus gave the institution $65,000 in 1889-90, $50,000 in 1890-91, and $30,000 in 1891-1892. Yet the founder became completely disenchanted with Hall's administration and was unwilling to continue subsidizing its budget any further unless the undergraduate college was begun in 1892, according to the original agreement. To show his displeasure when no college was begun, Clark wrote to the trustees on March 19, 1891, stating that he would provide only $18,000 for the 1892-1893 academic year and in effect nothing subsequently unless his conditions were met. Finally Hall and the trustees notified Clark in a letter of December 31, 1892, that they intended to maintain the university as an all-graduate institution, thereby breaking any supportive relationship with the founder (Koelsch, 1987, pp. 42-44; Ross, 1972, pp. 201-216). Second, because Hall had severe administrative conflicts with the faculty, they threatened to resign en masse and were placated only after he agreed to establish some shared governance structures. Third, this conflict made possible William Rainey Harper's successful raid on Clark's faculty, half of whom accepted positions in his new University of Chicago (Hall 1923, pp. 295-297). Only the psychology faculty remained strong from that point. Fourth, intensifying all these difficulties was a personal tragedy, the death of Hall's wife and child on May 15, 1890 (Ross, 1972, pp. 207-230).

From these dire conditions, as has so often happened in the history of American colleges and universities (Clark, 1970), arose a new venture which helped save Clark University. While Hall and Burnham's education courses remained strongly linked to psychology during the academic year, they did little for teachers and administrators in the community. The president tried [End Page 75] to remedy some of Clark's complaints about the university's lack of involvement with the local community by planning a summer school for teachers, principals, and college administrators, patterned after those conducted at the École Pratique in France which gave academic lectures to current professionals in the field (Hall, April 1893, p. 15). Hall hoped this effort might persuade the founder to be more generous; yet by July 1892, Hall needed to make up for the founder's shortfall in the next academic year at the now downsized university. The president intended to return to full-time teaching in philosophy, psychology, and education in the fall, but this contribution was not enough. Therefore, he launched the summer school for a broader audience than he had initially envisioned. The July two-week "Summer School of Higher Pedagogy and of Psychology" attracted "a half-dozen principals of normal schools, a like number of city school superintendents, generally from small towns in the East, a few university professors of pedagogy, and the rest generally normal school teachers" (Ross, 1972, p. 281). Initially, 60 to 70 men and women from the Worcester area and 20 states came to classes. Hall and two other colleagues, Burnham and Edmund Clark Sanford (1859-1924), another former Hopkins student, lectured on progressive elementary and secondary education and the child study movement ("Clark University Summer School," 1892; "A Summer School," 1892-1893, p. 25). Part of the attraction to this summer school was Hall's national position as one of the leading researchers of the child study movement since the 1890s. He had written extensively on the education of children with particular attention to classroom teaching, based on his surveys of teachers about child behaviors and learning (Hall, 1893; Ross, 1972, pp. 279-308). The final registration was 200 students (Hall, "Annual Report of the President," 1902, p. 29). What impressed Hall about this effort was the summer school's revenues, its success among administrators and teachers, and its potential role in reforming education (Hall, 1892; Koelsch, 1987, p. 59).

Through this summer program, Hall found a way to encourage educational change in regional and national arenas. Although he considered this program a public service to the community, he intended to raise its activities in the following year to the graduate level, comparable with Clark's science programs. Educational research and study would be progressive and intellectual, tailored to meet the needs of university, college, or normal school administrators in the East. Hall expected students who entered this summer course of study in 1893 to have a baccalaureate degree, a reading knowledge of French and German, and a general knowledge of psychology. It appears that his effort did not succeed as no program was offered in the summer of 1893. Rather, Hall reverted to the earlier approach with the 1894 summer school attracting 217 registered students. Hall hoped that the program might enable summer school students to earn a degree, but this outcome did not occur ("Clark University Summer School," 1894, p. 131; Hall, [End Page 76] 1902, p. 29). Nevertheless, the summer school demonstrated the great demand for education. It encouraged the president to offer the graduate study of education on all levels. Hall also envisioned offering courses related to the problems of colleges and universities.

The Study of Higher Education

The Program's Developmental Phase, 1891-1900

During the next nine years, Hall used various means to advance the study of higher pedagogy at Clark University: a circular of information about a department of education, a journal, seminar courses, and finally a program of higher education courses. In this period, Hall's concept of higher pedagogy included the study of all educational levels, including higher education. Such study enabled future education faculty and administrators to know more about higher education. From our contemporary perspective, Hall created the first higher education program with all of what one would expect to find in this first graduate effort.

A Circular of Information. In 1891 when Hall announced plans for a summer school, he issued a circular which described a separate department of education within the university. At least part of his motive, like his plans for summer school, was the hope that the appeal of these studies to the local and regional community might make Jonas Gilman Clark relent and open his coffers. Hall proposed to create a Department of Education which offered elementary through higher education studies. It was based in part on the higher pedagogical seminaries at German universities and research practices at the École Normale in Paris where students gained a knowledge of the subject area, taught students, and conducted research to become professors of education (Burnham 1899, pp. 162-163; "Department of Psychology," 1893, p. 23; Clark University, 1901, p. 5). This program was intended to prepare students to become professors of pedagogy, superintendents, and other types of administrators. Hall also hoped that students studying "to become professors in other subjects" would benefit from such courses by broadening "their attainments and make their services in the work of higher education more valuable" ([Hall,] 1891d, [p. 1]).

The course offerings in higher education that he described in his four-page circular were quite contemporary even by today's standards:

President Hall will describe the educational systems of the chief European countries as they exist to-day, beginning with France. Under each country recent Educational Legislation, Administration and Financial Methods, Buildings, Supervision, Curricula, Training of Teachers, Examinations and Literature will be described. Educational work in the United States will be treated in the same way.

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While considering elementary work and grades much attention will be given to intermediate and higher education, including such topics as: The Constitution of Universities, with historical sketches and descriptions of typical institutions, both European and American; The relations of Government to Science in the various countries; Learned Societies, Associations, and Academies; The Three Learned Professions; Technical Education, Art Schools, etc. ([Hall,] 1891d, [pp. 1-2])

These offerings could be grouped into three contemporary specializations. First, higher education administration would include conceptions of the university, history of higher education, administration, finance, facilities management, faculty, curricula, associations, and comparative higher education. A second area would comprise curriculum, teaching, professional education, teacher education, and vocational education. The third specialty would consist of public policy, research funding, institutional missions, and comparative higher education. In Hall's typical fashion, this programmatic vision was large in scope. He intended to teach about "the external organization and administration of education and the methods of higher, special, and professional training" ([Hall,] 1891d, [p. 3]). Hall did not begin to offer these formal higher education courses during the regular academic year until 1893, undoubtedly because of the 1892 crises. Perhaps, he also wished to see how successful the summer offerings were before making a more institutional commitment to the study of education in general to and higher education in particular.

An Educational Journal. Meanwhile, Hall began other projects to prepare for this new graduate concentration. In his 1891 circular, the president also announced that the university would create a new scholarly research journal, to disseminate research and knowledge about education ([Hall,] 1891d, [p. 4]). In the 1891-1892 academic year, Hall launched the Pedagogical Seminary: An International Record of Educational Literature, Institutions, and Progress (renamed the Journal of Genetic Psychology in 1927). While addressing all levels of education, it became one of the first journals to explore higher education specifically and a vehicle for his strategy to foster academic reform. As part of this effort, Hall's progressive rationale for selecting higher education as a field of study may be found in its pages. He wanted the administrations of American universities to embrace the research-oriented German university ideal and even go beyond it by instituting more American practices such as paying the salaries of students engaged in research as part of their doctoral studies (Koelsch, 1987, p. 25). He believed this revolution could occur only if administrators (Hall, 1899, p. 56) and specialists (Hall, 1914, pp. 24-25) understood colleges and universities and their traditions well enough to assist campus leaders in moving institutions to the next stage of their evolution. In his speech commemorating Clark [End Page 78] University's 25th anniversary in 1914, Hall identified professors and programs as the best means to achieve such developmental change. As he often did, Hall used a German illustration to bolster his point. The president singled out the then-famous pedagogical professor, Friedrich Paulsen (1938), as "the best representative of the higher pedagogy I plead for which that country has produced" (Hall, 1914, p. 26). Hall believed Paulsen's (1885, 1906) research on German universities had shown how such institutions were an appropriate part of the study of education (1908).

Hall wrote frequent Pedagogical Seminary editorials explaining the purpose of studying higher education. It was, he said, "training future leaders in the field of higher education to the same expert knowledge of efforts and achievements in other lands" through "a wide survey in order to profit by experiences of success and failure elsewhere" (1891c, p. 312). Hall's "training" involved more than exposure to a survey course or two. As his words revealed, the president intended to implement his regional and national reform agendas through an extensive program of studies. Over the next 23 years, Hall used his teaching, research, education courses, publications, higher education courses, dissertation and thesis advisement, and external advocacy to promote the study of higher education.

Central to his own awareness about higher education as a separate field of study was his weekly seminar. While Hall's earliest teaching and writing about all levels of education had begun at Antioch and Hopkins, his exploration of higher pedagogy started with his Monday evening seminars (or "seminaries," as they were then called) at Clark University ([Hall,] 1901, p. 5). The parlor now designated as Hall's Seminary Room in the presidential home was one of the places where the modern American graduate research seminar began (Smith, 1995, pp. 1154-1164). Hall gathered students and faculty from 7:30 p.m. to midnight every Monday to listen to two students present research papers which then launched discussion and debate on important ideas and related research. The topics of these sessions usually related to Hall's major teaching and research interests, such as psychology, education, or philosophy ([Hall,] 1901, pp. 114-116). The president used this forum to expand his own intellectual horizons and those of his students. One of them, Lewis Terman, recounted: "I always went home dazed and intoxicated, took a hot bath to quiet my nerves, then lay awake for hours rehearsing the drama and formulating all the clever things I should have said and did not" (quoted in Koelsch, 1987, p. 53). These creative interchanges led to new intellectual beginnings, especially the study of higher education as part of Hall's comprehensive understanding of pedagogy.

These seminar experiences also produced articles for the Pedagogical Seminary. An opening editorial in the first issue set the methodological agenda for this field of study. "The higher study of education" was a "natural [End Page 79] method" which consisted of gathering ideas, describing institutional systems, and collecting data to create digests for study; the resulting literature would be "a museum of specimens" (Hall, 1891a, pp. vi-vii). Hall's unique contribution to this method involved differentiating these materials by levels of education and by their constitutive parts.

This [museum of specimens] must be distinguished as elementary, higher, technical, industrial, normal, state or private education, etc. It should cover buildings, curricula and methods in each subject, including music and fine arts, hygiene, supervision and inspection, books both for teachers and pupils, and illustrative apparatus, . . . the training of the blind, deaf, idiots, criminals, and other defectives, the three learned professions, the relations between government and science, and the education of civil servants, the history of education, libraries, individual educational leaders, and special institutions, and also, presented in the same concise and objective way, the current ethical, philosophical and psychological ideas and theories. (Hall 1891a, p. vii)

As Hall intended it, "higher pedagogical training" thus required: (a) a knowledge of the educational systems of different countries and their educational literatures, (b) teaching experience, and (c) independent and original research ("Department of Psychology," 1892-1893, pp. 22-23). The journal articles demonstrated his method for all audiences, including trustees, legislators, college and university presidents, professors of pedagogy, and Clark students with the goal of improving education.

The scope of pedagogy was all encompassing for Hall. Regrettably, even the best account of the Pedagogical Seminary specifically and his life in general purposively does not discuss his continuing avocation for the study of higher education (Ross, 1972, pp. xv-xvi, 279-340). That component of education becomes more evident in his journal articles. Accompanying his first editorial was "Educational Reforms," an article Hall (1891b) wrote to demonstrate this new method by describing and comparing European and American higher education. More than half of the issue covered the recent literature in higher and medical education from France, Germany, other European countries, and North America. A shorter final section reviewed the literature in intermediate and elementary education.

While the second issue of the Pedagogical Seminary discussed elementary education and adolescence, the third issue returned to Hall's (1891c, pp. 310-326) preoccupation with higher education. "His lengthy editorial identified topical issues in the field: the administration of colleges and universities, teaching the college student, how research and specialization differentiated the roles of the college and university, the presidency, and the need for interinstitutional cooperation to prevent program duplication" (Goodchild, 1991, p. 17). After these specific concerns, Hall then described [End Page 80] the purpose and method of the study of higher education as noted above (Hall, 1891c, p. 312). Several years later, Hall explicitly linked the journal's purpose with his progressive educational ideals by noting its usefulness in "promoting progressive educational reform from the university to the kindergarten" (Hall, 1894, pp. 4-5).

The Subdepartment of Education. In his 1891 circular, Hall had announced the creation of a department of education which would offer courses in elementary, secondary, and higher education. However, the transition from courses in education during the regular academic year and summer school to a full graduate education department proved too risky for Hall to implement in that year. In the 1892-1893 academic year, Hall and Burnham continued to offer education courses within the Department of Psychology. Finally, as Hall better understood the fiscal picture for the university, he decided against forming a separate department of education but created a subdepartment of education in the Department of Psychology in 1893. Students now were able to declare an education minor as part of their psychology doctorate (Clark University Register, 1893-1894, p. 45; Burnham, 1899, p. 161).

Higher Education Courses. These previous steps led to the first programmatic configuration which launched higher education as a field of study. More than just the first course devoted completely to higher education (C. W. Burnett, qtd. in Dressel & Mayhew, 1974, p. 7; Townsend, 1990, p. 162; B. B. Young, qtd. in Burnett, 1973, p. 7), Hall offered a series of courses on higher education. In the 1893-1894 academic year, Hall placed a specific description of higher education as a field of study--an abbreviated summary of his 1891 circular--in the Clark University Register (p. 46):

HIGHER EDUCATION, including university work, technical education; training in law, medicine, and theology; recent progress, present state and prospects of the most advanced education in different countries, including our own.

Moreover, the president announced the first course entirely devoted to higher education, "Present Status and Problems of Higher Education in this Country and Europe" (Clark University Register, 1893-1894, p. 46). Although the catalog contained no formal course description, Hall seemed to have used the course content for a more public discussion. During the following year, Hall published a series of six articles in the educational journal Forum (Hall, 1894, p. 5), a commercial journal of the Forum Publishing Company which published original investigations on contemporary American problems. It is clear from various inferences that they comprised content from his first courses and summaries from the Pedagogical Seminary: "Child-Study: The Basis of Exact Education" (December 1893) included a plea for the study of college students; "American Universities and the Training of Teachers" (April [End Page 81] 1894) outlined the great moments in American higher education; "Universities and the Training of Professors" (May 1894) described the pedagogy of higher education; "Scholars, Fellowships, and the Training of Professors" (June 1894) analyzed the funding of higher education; "Research, the Vital Spirit of Teaching" (July 1894) explored the meaning of research at the university; and "The New Psychology as a Basis for Education" (August 1894) recapitulated many of the early themes. Their content disclosed Hall's scope of higher education as a field of study.

Hall's other courses covered higher education within the context of the larger educational world. In his second course that year, "Outline of Systematic Pedagogy" (Clark University Register, 1893-1894, p. 46), he outlined the entire field of education; he published some of these ideas later in an article, "What Is Pedagogy?" for the Pedagogical Seminary (Hall, 1905b). In the following 1894-1895 academic year, Hall designed another education course, "Organization and Curricula of School and College," which addressed all levels of education (Clark University Register, 1894, p. 46). Not limiting himself to the former two areas, Hall gave a course on educational topics the next year which undoubtedly included higher education (Clark University Register, 1895, p. 60). Thus Hall's four courses and Monday seminars launched higher education as a field of study.

While it is difficult to determine the exact content of these courses during this first period, Hall's self-awareness on beginning this study is clear retrospectively. He wanted professors of pedagogy and educational administrators to know about all levels of education. Perhaps reflecting his own success in offering the higher education courses which he was unable to do at Hopkins, Hall later stressed that he had taught about a subject which he knew intimately. His "insistence not only upon including higher education in the scope of pedagogy but the fact that it was the president himself who gave courses upon the history and present organization of the higher institutions of learning" (Hall, 1923, p. 337) showed his eventual personal understanding of this developing field of study. During this developmental phase of the higher education program, Hall thus had taken steps to announce the study of higher pedagogy of which higher education was one aspect, to create a journal to explore higher education content, to offer higher education courses, and to publish appropriate higher education studies. Naturally, it took several years for Hall to clarify the nature of the field of higher education and to demonstrate the results of this new study, as is typical in graduate education, through student accomplishments.

The Program's Maturing Phase, 1900-1920

In 1899 at Clark University's 10th anniversary celebration, Hall credited the institution's survival to the trustees who "foresaw from the beginning of the year [1892] one of the gravest of crises, and met it with an unanimity, a [End Page 82] wisdom, and a firmness which even in the light of all that has transpired since, I think could not be improved upon" (Hall, 1899, p. 51). Their guardianship played a large role in the continuation of the university and its programs until it attained a stronger financial base. The deaths of Jonas Gilman Clark and his wife, in 1900 and 1904 respectively, resulted in a substantial bequest to the university of approximately $2.5 million for the three major divisions, the graduate university, the proposed undergraduate college, and the library (Koelsch, 1987, pp. 82-91; Ross, 1972, p. 274). Hall's major institutional concession to obtain these monies was to begin the undergraduate college in 1902, finally fulfilling his promise to its founder. It was headed by a separate president, a condition of the founder's bequest. However, the trustees' support during the previous fifteen years enabled Hall to sustain his presidential vision of a graduate university and the programs in psychology and education. The trustees had a vested interest in maintaining Clark University's graduate orientation. Many were leading figures in the community from bank presidents to members of Congress. Yet many had a Harvard degree and were determined to not create a competing private institution of higher learning in the state (Koelsch, 1987, pp. 10-14). Nevertheless, their advice and support kept the institution going, while its educational programs developed.

During 1900 to 1920, it is not surprising that the study of higher education continued to mature and take on a more contemporary programmatic form in many respects. In a 1902 national study of 244 institutions offering education courses, only Clark University had established a research-oriented program of higher pedagogy (Kinnaman, 1902, p. 370). Having now assumed the title of professor of psychology and education, Hall also taught formal higher education courses during the regular academic year until 1910 and thereafter as he wished. Hall's last new higher education course in 1912 identified higher pedagogy as higher education. Two years later at the 25th anniversary of the university's founding, Hall presented a major address on university problems. These activities reflected his continued and deepening awareness of this new field of study. Meanwhile, he had created a separate Department of Pedagogy in 1911 because there were three faculty members now teaching education, which allowed for greater specialization. He appointed Edmund Clark Sanford (1859-1924) who had become a professor of psychology in 1900 and president of the College in 1909 to assist him and Burnham in teaching education courses (Koelsch, 1987, pp. 53-55). Sanford devoted entire courses to higher education topics. Each of these steps pointed to the maturing study of higher education as field.

Hall's Higher Education Lectures. After the 1909-1910 academic year, Hall curtailed some of his classroom teaching, although he continued to conduct his Monday seminar until 1920. Instead, he turned more of his attention to administration and research. However, during the previous academic [End Page 83] year, Hall fortunately had some of his courses transcribed; although no complete set survives, the incomplete transcriptions provide a clear picture of his wide-ranging teaching style. Moreover, they reveal insights into some of the higher education issues that affected him deeply as a scholar and an administrator.

Above all else, Hall valued freedom in education so that students of all ages could explore almost any subject. His January 30, 1909, lecture discussed a proposed revolutionary plan for schools which consisted of general education, modern subjects, and vocational education instead of Greek and Latin. He argued that colleges had been responsible for imposing traditional language subjects on students and schools. After summarizing the plan, Hall said:

Far be it from me to advocate any such scheme as that at present and I have only tried to emphasize some of these negative things that are coming in. There is a growing dissatisfaction with the schools as they are now and surely and slowly we have got to have a different order of things. (Hall, 1909, p. 18)

In Hall's analytical fashion, he did not completely agree with this revolutionary school curriculum but did make clear that the classical language status quo could not be tolerated. On February 6, 1909, Hall began talking about industrial education, which might be described as educational preparation for the workplace. The discussion led to an exploration of the current "sweeping condemnation" of college education which had been made by Woodrow Wilson, president of Princeton. Wilson believed that an elective curriculum or the classical language course did not prepare students for being good citizens and for taking on a responsive role in solving societal problems (Clements, 1987, pp. 28-30). Such sentiment assisted Wilson's later successful bid for the White House. Then Hall noted Abraham Flexner's pessimistic assessment of students' performance and the college's fixed curriculum. He commented:

Last Fall I heard him give an address along that line. Dr. Flexner, who is interested very much in educational matters, says students of all grades lack disinterested intellectual activity, love of the intellectual life for its own sake. They are driven cattle, etc. The qualities that now give a man an A.B. degree in our institutions on the whole are just those qualities that would cause any young man or woman who had them to be dismissed from any business. That is the most radical statement I have ever seen. (Hall, 1909, 4)

Similar to his previous points on school education, Hall wished for a comprehensive change from the current curricula of both levels of education so that students would have more freedom.

Although the remaining bound lecture corpus lacks dates, Hall then turned to higher education issues related to the college presidency. First, [End Page 84] Hall disclosed more information about his reaction to Harper's successful raid on Clark's faculty.

In founding the University of Chicago, President Harper took three of the best of the Clark Faculty for heads of his departments and several others as professors. It was a severe blow to us then, and although we have been since often associated, neither of us could ever quite forget this incident. But the men were all ideally devoted to science and have been given larger opportunities than they could have had here, which to a man they have almost ideally improved. Despite all this, I long ago came to admire President Harper's genius and yield to no man [i]n appreciation of his masterly work and of the great institution he has established. All the way from university extension and summer schools for teachers to the very highest graduate study and research he has done pioneer and epoch-making work and made all universities his debtors for original plans, and has found or made a way to the practical realization of many a scheme which older and more conservative institutions piously wished to realize. (Hall, n.d. [1909], p. 1).

Later Hall turned to the nature of the university presidency, making observations that still resonate today:

The president of the ideal university, if indeed it will need that officer, will be less significant; but his functions will be inside and not outside. His interest in young instructors will not cease when they are appointed, but will only begin. . . . He will be alert in inspection of new topics and chairs, and not be content with simply duplicating old and standard departments. The passion for dollars and students will not dominate all his actions and words, but the advancement of learning will be nearest his heart. He will have tact and sagacity to lead and make, and not follow public opinion, and the courage to be a martyr to it if needful. His ultimate ideal goal will be to develop a new higher type of man. (Hall, n.d. [1909], pp. 1-2)

Reflecting the progressive and genetic ideas of his time, Hall saw the ideal world and struggled to achieve it. Yet his own past difficulties with many faculty demonstrated clearly the ideal nature of these comments. At a time of transition from strong university presidencies to more participative faculty governance, Hall's words revealed a growing presidential awareness of faculty rights which would become formalized five years later with the founding of the AAUP (Koelsch, 1987, pp. 35-38; Ross, 1972, pp. 227-230).

Hall's lecture corpus is extensive, revealing deeper and more personal thoughts than his published writings. Hall goes on to talk about the role of the doctorate, the support for electivism, and the need for specialization. He also defends his elitism, rejects utility, supports the research conception of the university, and expresses a love of academic freedom, which he rates as more important than monetary compensation (Hall, n.d. [1909]). Hall presented many of these issues in a more formal presentations. [End Page 85]

Hall's Developing Awareness of Higher Education. During this period, Hall developed a more specialized understanding of higher pedagogy which influenced his course offerings and publications. In 1912, he taught a new course on the study of higher education. Its significant title and description point to the next stage of his conceptual understanding of the field of higher education. While higher pedagogy had included all levels of the study of education at the graduate level in the developing phase of the program, Hall equated higher pedagogy with higher education topics during the next stage of the program's development. This shift was clearly evident in his course description: "HIGHER PEDAGOGY, or the principles and practice of education in college, university, law, medical, theological and technical schools, the endowment of research, learned academies, etc." (Clark University Register, 1912, p. 99). This realization further was evident in his addresses and writings.

While Hall's two-volume work on education, Educational Problems (1911), was limited to elementary and secondary issues, the projected third volume, unfortunately never completed, would have called for a "radical revision" of "the college, the university, the technical, medical, theological, and law schools" (Hall, 1911, p. xii). Hall's best formal assessment appears in "Contemporary University Problems," his 1914 address on Clark University's 25th anniversary. After covering a broad range of topics, the president gave a ringing rationale for the study of higher education that no doubt fired the imagination of his ideological followers and students:

To my mind there should always be a specialist here [Clark University] and in every institution in what may be called the higher pedagogy and in academic history, whose business it is to keep alive to all that is doing in academic life the world over. . . .

The time is at hand when university rectorates, presidencies, chancellorships, or whatever their name, can no longer be filled by any professor or even outsiders who can secure election, but will require men who, whatever else they are or know, are experts in the history of higher culture and its institutions. (Hall, 1914, pp. 24-25)

Hall called for American universities to adopt a research-oriented mission and the academic study of higher education. During the rest of his life, Hall espoused a messianic pedagogy quite indicative of this progressive age (1923, p. 529).

Sanford's Higher Education Courses. Meanwhile, after pedagogy became a department in 1911, Hall asked Edmund Clark Sanford, another faculty member, to join him and Burnham in teaching courses in higher pedagogy. Sanford, Hall's doctoral student at Johns Hopkins University, became one of Clark's leading professors of experimental and comparative psychology and co-editor with Hall of the American Journal of Psychology. After becoming [End Page 86] president of Clark's separate undergraduate college, Sanford turned his teaching attention to the developing field of higher education in 1911. His first course combined his administrative and faculty interests. "The Problems of College Education" was "a discussion of the most important questions of college efficiency with especial reference to present day tendencies and criticisms" (Clark University Register, 1911, pp. 96-97). His graduate courses were almost second-generational efforts in the developing field of higher education. They extended the scope of Hall's offerings, as is evident, through such titles as "The College and the Community," "The American College and Its Critics," "The College Student as Material for College Teaching," "An Ideal University," "Changes in Higher Education as a Result of the War," "Higher Education in the United States," and finally "Collegiate Education in the Recent Past and the Near Future" (Clark University Register, 1917, pp. 87-88; 1918, p. 85; 1919, pp. 89-90). These eight new courses broadened the field of study and provided new learning opportunities for students.

Sanford's course description of "Higher Education in the United States" gives a rather convincing picture of how he understood higher education as a field of study. Moreover, it demonstrated a linkage between his specialty of psychology and his interest in student life.

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. After an historical survey of the influences which have molded higher education in this country, the demands of the present day upon institutions of higher learning will be analyzed and methods of meeting them considered. Especial attention will be given to the distinguishing characteristics of college and university students and the needs peculiar to their stages of development. (Clark University Register, 1918, p. 85)

His offerings demonstrated the program's next stage of development, moving beyond Hall's focus on administration to include a greater integration of psychology and education with a focus on student development.

Burnham's Contribution. Throughout this time, Burnham had also contributed in his own way to this developing field of study. On November 30, 1918, as part of his course, "Principles of Education," which was transcribed, he discussed the college and the university in a broader survey of educational issues. Burnham reviewed the current criticism of the college, the nature of liberal education, and the college's future. Citing Harvard President A. Lawrence Lowell, Burnham pointed to the importance of the student's skill development throughout the entire college experience rather than in particular courses. Then in a lengthier section of his lecture, he took up university education and its history. Burnham described Cardinal Newman's concept of the university and then Thwing's (1900) four university types, citing German, Scottish, Oxbridge, and Indian institutions (Ross, [End Page 87] 1918, pp. 35-43). Thus the three faculty members expanded their courses offerings dealing with the study of higher education during this middle phase of the program. Their students benefited from this variety of course offerings.

Hall and His Students

Admission to Clark University consisted of an interview with Hall who accepted only persons whom he believed had strong intellects and potential for academic research. He was often accused of elitism in this regard, which he admitted and vigorously defended; however, a review of Hall's actions about students generally and higher education students in particular provides a more accurate picture of whom Hall enabled to study at Clark University.

This point is important, because Hall's most significant achievement is arguably his influence on students. He advised 110 doctoral and 81 master's degree candidates in psychology and education, and 10 in pedagogy who completed dissertations or theses on higher education topics. Subsequently, many of his students became professors of education and college administrators.

The students in the program in pedagogy were not classroom teachers, though most had previous teaching experience. Rather, they intended careers as school superintendents and administrators and as professors of education and, not infrequently, deans and presidents of state teacher training and other post-secondary institutions. (Koelsch, 1987, p. 59)

Students as Researchers. Initially, President Hall recruited many doctoral students from Johns Hopkins University for his elite research university. These assistants, doctoral students with stipends, docents, and advanced postdoctoral students who taught without faculty status comprised some of the most brilliant young researchers in the country. For example, in the department of psychology, Franz Boas and William H. Burnham were docents, while Edmund Clark Sanford was an assistant. Hall treated students in the Germanic tradition, giving them complete freedom to attend lectures if they wished. There were no grades given for course work. When students passed their comprehensive examination and successfully wrote and defended a dissertation, they were awarded a degree (Koelsch, 1987, p. 72).

Not surprisingly, Hall admitted primarily White males as students. Yet a number of researchers (most recently, for example, Tyack & Hansot, 1990, pp. 146-170, who recounted only Hall's attitudes against women's education and coeducation), have overlooked Hall's achievements in admitting women at the graduate level, even though Jonas Gilman Clark and many of its trustees initially prohibited him from admitting women because of their disdain for coeducation (Kolesch, 1987, p. 72). Hall ignored the prohibition and began admitting women in 1895, simply omitting to report them [End Page 88] until after the policy was changed in 1900 with the death of the university's founder. Thirteen women--four of whom completed both their master's and doctoral studies with Hall--earned graduate degrees under his advisement by 1920 (Wilson, 1925, pp. 97-108). Eventually, Hall was able to admit more women students to the university, although each admission was scrutinized by the trustees, even after 1900, as will be described shortly.

Theodate Louise Smith (1859-1914), who completed her Ph.D. at Yale, was the first woman admitted to course work at Clark in 1895. Smith returned to become Hall's special research assistant from 1902 to 1909. Officially, Caroline Osborne was the first woman to earn an M.A. in 1907 and a Ph.D. in 1908. When Hall allowed some graduate women to take undergraduate courses with men in 1909, he was called before the trustees, who were shocked at his attempt to bring about coeducation, to explain his actions. He resolved the matter by creating a separate course in education for women, following the standard practice of co-matriculation at many colleges and universities. "Clark was thus behind Yale and Chicago in its admission of women, but ahead of Hopkins and Harvard" (Koelsch, 1987, pp. 72-74). Hall later claimed that women

have acquitted themselves quite as well as if not, on the whole, a trifle better than the young men, even in research. They are extremely conscientious, open-minded to suggestions, assiduous workers, good critics, perhaps a trifle more influenced by personalities but always able to hold their own in seminary discussions. (Hall, 1923, p. 556)

Perhaps Hall's greatest achievement was in opening graduate study to minorities. He seemed particularly interested in students from Japan and China. In 1906-1907, Hikozo Kakise from Tokyo University became the first Asian university fellow to study psychology under Hall. Others followed: five completed doctorates and four master's degrees. Later, Hall enrolled African Americans, contrary to the practice in most universities. The first African American college student at Clark was Louis C. Tyree from Indiana, who entered in 1909 and received his baccalaureate degree in 1912. The first African American to earn a doctorate in psychology was Francis Cecil Sumner (1895-1954). With baccalaureate and master's degrees from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, Sumner entered Clark in 1917, was a university fellow for two years, and received the Ph.D. in 1920. Hall chaired his dissertation, "The Psychoanalysis of Freud and Adler." Sumner taught at Wilberforce University and West Virginia State College, then chaired the psychology department at Howard University from 1930 until 1954.

Hall seemed to enjoy the ethnic, religious, racial, and gender diversity of his students. Because of Hall's international standing in psychology and education, students came from all over the world to Clark. Given his interest in racial psychology, he later attempted to assess how each national group [End Page 89] fared in its studies. In this characterization, his pro-Germanic sentiments seemed to bias him, as his Life and Confessions of a Psychologist (1923) shows: "My own German students have been excelled by no other class. In preparatory training, in insight, power to think coherently and to carry out studies to their practical conclusion, they are not surpassed" (p. 556).

Above all, Hall was interested in students who wanted to advance knowledge through research. This characteristic applied even more to his pedagogical students.

Higher Education Graduates. Hall advised 10 students who completed dissertations and theses related to the study of higher education during his presidency (Wilson, 1925, pp. 97-108). Many contributed to developing higher education as a field of study either as professors or administrators. (See Who Was Who in America [1981] and Who's Who in America [1967] for these short biographies.) Five completed doctorates, becoming most accomplished in higher education. After earning his baccalaureate and master's degrees at Stanford by 1897, Henry Davidson Sheldon (1874-1948) went to Clark University and completed his dissertation, "The History and Pedagogy of American Student Societies," on May 15, 1900. His work, published as Student Life and Customs in 1901, became the foundational study on student societies and was reprinted by Arno Press in 1967. Sheldon had a distinguished career as a professor of education with specialties in philosophy and history and was later dean at the University of Oregon from 1900 to 1948. He finished his career as a research professor, contributing to the study of higher education.

After earning his baccalaureate degree at Randolph--Macon College in 1897, David Spence Hill (d. 1951) entered Clark in 1905 and completed his dissertation, "The Education and Problems of the Protestant Ministry," on June 20, 1907. Hill went on to a distinguished career as a professor of psychology and education first at the Peabody College for Teachers at Vanderbilt University from 1907 to 1911, then at Tulane University from 1911 to 1913, the University of Wisconsin from 1916 to 1917, and the University of Illinois from 1917 to 1919. He then became next president of the State University of New Mexico from 1919 to 1927 and then was a research professor at the University of Alabama. Besides being associated with the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and the American Council on Education, Hill authored many books including the Economy of Higher Education in 1933. He was awarded honorary doctorates by the University of Kentucky and the University of Arizona.

Asa George Steele (d. 1961) earned both his master's degree with a thesis on "Some Phases of the Problem of Industrial Education" in 1911 and a doctorate with the dissertation, "The Organization and Control of the College," on June 17, 1913, at Clark. Before his admission, Steele had earned a bachelor of science from the University of Missouri and been a professor of [End Page 90] science at one university and two colleges. He had also been president of Clarksville College in Tennessee from 1907 to 1908, and was awarded an honorary doctorate from Bowdoin College in 1908. Steele became a professor of pedagogy and psychology at Temple University in the fall of 1913 after his graduation.

Like Steele, after completing a baccalaureate degree at Springfield College in 1908, Edmund Smith Conklin (1884-1942) earned both his master's degree with a thesis, "Collegiate Religious Education," in 1909 and doctorate with a dissertation on "The Pedagogy of College Ethics," on June 15, 1911, at Clark. While he was acting head of the Department of Religious Education of Clark's Children's Institute from 1909 to 1910, Conklin later joined Sheldon at the University of Oregon where he was an assistant and then associate professor of psychology from 1911 to 1929. During this time, he also served as department chair and acting dean of the graduate school. He then became chair of the psychology department at Indiana University after 1934 until his death. He authored many books about psychology and religion.

Lastly, Maurice Walter Meyerhardt (d. 1949) earned a doctorate with a dissertation, "University Organization and Reform," on June 15, 1916, but little is known about him.

In 1906, Clark University's administration approved the granting of master of arts degrees. Very little is known about one of Hall's master's students except for his thesis title: Samuel Pinckney Schneider (d. 1936) wrote "The Relation of High Schools and Colleges" (1915). In contrast, Carroll Cornelius Pratt (1894-1979) wrote "Modern Religious Problems and Their Relation to College Students" (1916). After completing his psychology doctorate in 1921 at Clark, he became an instructor in experimental psychology there until December 1922. Subsequently, Pratt gained an assistant professorship in psychology at Harvard which he held from 1923 to 1937, then he moved to Rutgers University as a full professor in psychology and department head from 1937 to 1945. With several books in psychology by this time, Pratt finally moved to Princeton where he again became head of the psychology department and continued as a professor there until his retirement.

Another master's student went on to significant higher education achievements as well. Clarence Prouty Shedd (1887-1973) became a national and international scholar on religion and higher education. He wrote "The Origin and Development of the College Young Men's Christian Association Movement in North America" (1914), a project that grew out of his long-standing (1909-1926) leadership at the YMCA, interrupted only by his studies at Clark. Shedd became a lecturer, assistant professor, and associate professor in Yale's Divinity School (1923-1939), where he completed a doctorate in 1932. He then became the director of Yale's Center for Study of Religion in Higher Education from 1939 to 1955 where he authored many [End Page 91] books including: History of Religion in State Universities (1949), Religion in State Teachers Colleges (1952), Religion in Urban Universities (1952), Moral and Spiritual Values in Public Higher Education (1954), and Religion in State Universities (1959). Shedd was also an author of the Danforth Foundation's major study of campus ministry in the early 1960s.

The last master's student and Hall's one woman pedagogy advisee, Hermoine Louise Dealey, provides considerable information about the admission of women to Clark University, the study of higher education at the time, and Hall's support of women scholars. Dealey was gifted in languages, speaking German, French, and Italian; she wanted "to prepare for teaching in higher education," by taking courses in pedagogy and psychology at Clark where her brother was greatly enjoying his studies (Dealey, 1914). She had earned a bachelor of philosophy from Brown in 1914.

In the admission process, Hall asked for letters of support from Brown's president, the dean of the Women's College, and Dealey's professors. Candidly, he revealed in his correspondence that, although the trustees had agreed to admit qualified students regardless of sex in 1900, the admission process for women was more complicated:

Women students who come here do have a certain handicap in that they have to be passed on individually by a committee of the trustees, and there is a disposition to limit their numbers, and I have sometimes thought not to advance them up the fellowship quite as readily as men. Personally, I very strongly wish that there was absolutely no discrimination, and indeed it is not very much felt. (Hall, June 16, 1914)

Dealey's letters of recommendation were positive and included communications from Dealey's father, James Quayle Dealey, professor of social and political science at Brown University, and her uncle, William S. Learned, who had earned a Harvard doctorate in political science, was a Brown professor, and was on the staff of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Dealey was admitted and earned her master's degree in 1915 with a higher education thesis on "A Comparative Study of the Curricula of Wellesley, Smith and Vassar."

She returned to Brown to complete a doctorate in education by expanding the research population of her Clark thesis to include seven other women's colleges. Dealey was awarded the doctorate in 1918 with a dissertation on "Student Interests in Relation to Curricula of Women's Colleges." Informing Hall of this achievement in a letter, she thanked Hall for his help in her studies:

I cannot express in full my appreciation of the "incentive to research" and "scientific attitude" which you gave me at Clark University; but it has been a tremendous help to me in both my teaching work last year and in my graduate [End Page 92] study here at Brown. Next year I hope to do useful work in some college or university. (Dealey, 1918).

Hall continued to support Dealey's efforts toward publication of her work by considering her work for publication in the Pedagogical Seminary--although no article was published--and by writing letters of recommendation to support her application for deans of women and faculty positions. Dealey took a temporary teaching position at Hamline University during the spring of 1918, then taught as an assistant professor of educational psychology at the University of Minnesota from the fall of 1918 to the spring of 1921, at which point she married and resigned her appointment.

Hall's relationship with Dealey reveals his support of women scholars and the difficulties he faced with women's education at his own institution. Not unlike the graduates in today's higher education programs, Hall's many students showed some successes in gaining faculty and administrative positions, while others remain unknown. Overall, however, Hall's higher education students contributed greatly to the field, a significant legacy for any program.

The Program's Declining Phase, 1920-1926

In 1920, Hall retired from being university president and Sanford resigned from being college president. Sanford was appointed professor of psychology and education and continued to teach higher education courses in the Department of Education and School Hygiene. His last new course, "The History of Science and of Higher Education," covered the "study of human progress in the acquisition of systematized knowledge and the development of means for its increase and transmission" with particular attention to medical education (Clark University Bulletin, 1921, p. 88). After Hall's and Sanford's deaths, both in 1924 (Cowley, 1954), Wallace W. Atwood, the next president of Clark University (1920-1946), sought to return the innovative institution to the more normative patterns of other American colleges. When Burnham retired from teaching in 1926, the Department of Education was no longer allowed to offer the doctorate and was merged with the Department of Psychology (Koelsch, 1987, pp. 133, 141). The founding program of higher education, which launched this field of study in the United States, had ended at Clark University.

The Programmatic Expansion of Higher Education

While G. Stanley Hall was president of Clark University, he called for the study of higher education to be introduced at other American universities at various national conferences, including the Association of American Universities (Brown, 1915, 1921) and the Association of American Universities. [End Page 93] He believed that this field was an essential part of his reform agenda for American universities. His statement before the AAU in 1916 revealed his sentiment and pointed to his own realization of his pioneering effort at Clark in establishing the field of higher education:

Should not each institution with a department of education add to the work that now includes only grammar and higher school grades one or more courses on the history of science, of learned academies, universities, and colleges, their policy, and the higher pedagogy generally? I know of only two attempts in the country ever made in this line. In one it was proposed but the president thought it might not harmonize with the institution's administrative policies. (Hall, 1916, p. 37)

Still recalling Gilman's prohibition at Hopkins from the 1880s, Hall knew that the study of higher education might pose problems for certain types of administrators, yet he believed that such progressive study was key to the advancement of American institutions of higher learning. He was unaware that others would soon respond to his plea.

Beginning two years later, a few universities began to offer courses in higher education which eventually led to programs similar to the one at Clark University. The growth of junior colleges during the first part of this century spurred the growth of higher education programs from the 1920s until the 1960s. Unknowingly, Hall's programmatic vision passed from Clark University to those beginning the inchoate higher education professional programs at Ohio State University in 1918, Teachers College at Columbia University in 1920, the University of Chicago in 1921, the University of Pittsburgh in 1928, and both the University of California at Berkeley and the University of Michigan in 1929 (Goodchild, 1991). Their successes would continue.

Conclusion

Throughout his 32-year presidency at Clark University, G. Stanley Hall championed the study of higher education. Following the ideas and patterns from German and French universities and adding unique American elements, he created the first program for the study of higher pedagogy. Initially, Hall included all levels of education from primary to higher education as part of this research-oriented psychological study. Gradually as the program of studies developed and achieved departmental status, his awareness of this field became more specialized and narrowed to higher education alone. His programmatic efforts at Clark University thus saw three developmental periods with, at one point, three faculty members offering sixteen courses about higher education. Hall offered five courses, while Sanford taught nine and Burnham two. Their scholarly productivity resulted [End Page 94] in many publications, often through a journal devoted to higher education topics. Most importantly, Hall's students gained faculty and administrative positions. These essential components constituted the first program of higher education in the United States.

As part of this centennial celebration of the first higher education course in 1893, this article has focused on the programmatic origins of higher education as a field of study. Yet Hall also wrote over fifty publications related to the study of higher education. This intellectual heritage reveals another side of Hall's genius; further discussions of this largely unexamined corpus have begun at other forums (Goodchild, 1995a, 1995b). Given these developments, G. Stanley Hall's contribution to the field of higher education therefore must be its founding moment.

Lester F. Goodchild is an Associate Professor of Education and Coordinator of the Higher Education and Adult Studies Program at the University of Denver. Acknowledgements: "I would like to note my appreciation for the gracious assistance that Dorothy E. Mosakowski, Coordinator of Archives and Special Collections, and her assistant, Cynthia A. Shenette, at the University Archives of Clark University gave me in my research on Hall and his higher education program. Without their kind cooperation, much would have been remained unknown. Their efforts coupled with the excellent works of Dorothy Ross and William A. Koelsch enabled me to provide a new perspective on Hall's pioneering work in higher education. Similarly, the revision of this paper was enhanced appreciably because of the helpful content and stylistic suggestions from Irene Huk, Harold Wechsler, and Roger Geiger as well as two anonymous reviewers. They deserve my sincere thanks."

Note

1. The Association for the Study of Higher Education celebrated this centenary November 4-7, 1993, at its 18th annual meeting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. An earlier version of this article, "The Genius of G. Stanley Hall: The American Origins of Higher Education as a Field of Study," was presented as part of the symposium, "Celebrating Our Centennial Beginnings: A Founder, An Intellectual Heritage, and a Broad Array of Programmatic Offerings," which was chaired by Michael T. Nettles, president of ASHE. Other presenters were: Philo A. Hutcheson, "'And They Also Thought': An Intellectual History of Higher Education Studies," and Barbara K. Townsend and Glenn M. Nelson, "A Glimpse of Current Programmatic Practices."

References

Note: Much of the reference material on Hall's presidency is housed in the Clark University Archives at the Robert Hutchings Goddard Library on the university campus in Worcester, Massachusetts (hereafter cited as CUA).

Boring, E. G. (1950). A history of experimental psychology. Century Psychology Series (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Brint, S., & Karabel, J. (1989). The diverted dream: Community colleges and the promise of educational opportunity in America, 1900-1985. New York: Oxford University Press.

Brown, E. E. (1915). Collegiate education is a national problem. Association of American Colleges Bulletin, 1(1), 151-156.

Brown, E. E. (1921, March). The collegiate contribution to American education. Association of American Colleges Bulletin, 7, 5-7.

Burnett, C. W. (1973, Winter). Higher education as a specialized field of study. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 6, 4-15.

Burnham, W. H. (1899). Pedagogy. In W. E. Story & L N. Wilson (Eds.), Clark University, 1889-1899: Decennial celebration (pp. 161-176). Worcester, MA: Clark University.

Carr, D. (1986). Time, narrative, and history: Studies in phenomenology and existential philosophy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Clark, B. E. (1970). The distinctive college: Antioch, Reed, and Swarthmore. Chicago: Aldine.

Clark University Register. Issues of 1892-1895, 1911, 1912, 1917-1919, 1921. CUA.

Clark University summer school. (1892, August). Journal of Education, 25, 128.

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Clements, K. A. (1987). Woodrow Wilson: World statesman. Twayne's Twentieth-Century American Biography Series. Boston: Twayne Publishers.

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